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Coastal & Marine Resources Management

NOAA By the Numbers Topics

Coastal & Marine Resources Management

NOAA manages the use of coastal and marine environments by regulating fisheries, establishing a network of marine parks and sanctuaries, and protecting marine mammals, and threatened and endangered species. We protect healthy habitat by prioritizing our work to address the biggest threats, and we restore degraded or injured habitat to ensure it can support living marine resources.

NOAA's Role:

NOAA works to conserve marine areas and preserve the economic benefits of these special places to local communities through its coastal management and place-based conservation programs, such as the: National Marine Sanctuary System, the National Estuarine Research Reserve System, the Coral Reef Conservation Program, National Coastal Zone Management Program, and the Coastal and Estuarine Land Conservation Program.

    • The Office of National Marine Sanctuaries is the trustee for a network of underwater parks that encompass more than 629,000 square miles of marine and Great Lakes waters from Washington state to the Florida Keys, and from Lake Huron to American Samoa. The network includes a system of 18 national marine sanctuaries and the Mariana Trench, Pacific Islands Heritage, Papahānaumokuākea, and Rose Atoll marine national monuments.
    • The National Estuarine Research Reserves System, a partnership between NOAA and the coastal states and territories, is a network of 30 estuarine areas established across the nation for long-term research, education, and coastal stewardship. The reserves employ an active stewardship program to keep each of the system’s over 1.4 million acres productive. The reserves focus on stewardship, research, training, and education on topics including nonpoint source pollution, resilient communities, habitat restoration, and invasive species. For example, one study found that the shoreline protection within the Jacques Cousteau National Estuarine Research Reserve resulted in  ~$8.34 million in avoided damages during a simulated Hurricane Sandy event in 2012.
    • The Coral Reef Conservation Program, a partnership between the NOAA line offices that work on coral reef issues, covers threats from land based sources of pollution, resilience to climate change, coral restoration, fisheries sustainability, and human connections to reefs. The Coral Reef Conservation Program funds and equips coral reef conservation and monitoring activities by NOAA and its partners in the seven U.S. states and territories containing coral reefs (American Samoa, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Florida, Guam, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and U.S. Virgin Islands), as well as the Pacific Remote Island Areas and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary.
    • The National Coastal Zone Management Program comprehensively addresses the nation’s coastal issues through a voluntary partnership between the federal government and coastal and Great Lakes states and territories. Authorized by the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, the program provides the basis for protecting, restoring, and responsibly developing our nation’s diverse coastal communities and resources. 
    • The Coastal and Estuarine Land Conservation Program (CELCP) is authorized as part of the Coastal Zone Management Act to protect coastal lands that are ecologically important or possess other coastal conservation values, such as historic features, scenic views, or recreational opportunities. From 2002 to 2019, the program protected more than 110,000 acres of coastal and estuarine lands through funds to state and local governments to purchase land or obtain conservation easements.
  • NOAA Fisheries supports and maintains habitats to sustain fisheries and recover threatened and endangered species:
    • Fisheries’ Office of Habitat Conservation (OHC) protects and restores habitat to sustain fisheries, recover protected species, and maintain resilient coastal ecosystems and communities. Since 1992, OHC has provided funding to implement more than 3,800 coastal habitat restoration projects. Restoration also creates jobs—an average of 15 jobs per $1 million invested. The OHC’s Restoration Center has funded more than 70 oyster restoration projects in 15 states. The Chesapeake Bay Program is a NOAA-led partnership to restore oyster reefs in the Chesapeake Bay.
    • NOAA shares responsibility for implementing the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) and Endangered Species Act. NOAA Fisheries has jurisdiction over 165 endangered and threatened marine species, including whales, dolphins, seals, and sea turtles. NOAA Fisheries economists estimated that society places a value of $13 billion on recovering just three of the endangered species: leatherback sea turtle, North Pacific right whale, and North Atlantic right whale. The benefits far outweigh the costs of current conservation measures aimed at reducing their risk of extinction.
  • The Office of Response and Restoration (OR&R) is a center of expertise in preparing for, evaluating, and responding to threats to coastal environments, including oil and chemical spills, releases from hazardous waste sites, and marine debris. In 2024 OR&R responded to 186 marine pollution and coastal emergencies, recovered $40 million from polluters for restoration, and removed 8.4 million pounds of marine debris from coastal waters.
  • The Damage Assessment, Remediation, and Restoration Program (DARR) acts on behalf of the public to protect and restore natural resources harmed by oil spills, releases of hazardous waste, and, in some instances, vessel groundings. To date, DARRP, in cooperation with teams composed of state, tribal, federal agencies, and industries, has recovered more than $10 billion for restoration from those responsible for environmental harm. Protection and restoration have also been integrated into more than 500 waste site cleanups in order to reduce further injuries to natural resources and accelerate recovery.

Why It Matters:

General Marine and Coastal Resources:
  • Coastal and marine resources serve as a primary engine for economic prosperity and regional resilience, driving national tourism and commercial/recreational fishing, safeguarding infrastructure, and generating jobs. 
  • The marine-based tourism and recreation sector accounts for 652,000 jobs, more than each of the other nine sectors contributing to the U.S. Marine Economy. In 2023, this sector produced approximately $285 billion (2023$) in gross output and contributed $178 billion to GDP.  – U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis. (2025). Marine Economy Satellite Account, 2023. https://www.bea.gov/data/special-topics/marine-economy 
  • A global meta-analysis of the economic value of marine and coastal ecosystems (coral reefs, marine waters, mangroves, seagrass, beaches/dunes, wetlands, and kelp forests) found that provisioning services (fishing, raw materials, and resources) were valued at $99-$1,535 (2018$) per hectare per year, cultural services were valued at $45-$2,170 per hectare per year, and recreation and tourism services were valued at $185-$895 per individual per year. The meta-analytical model was based on 67 peer-reviewed studies published between 1997-2018.  – Lopez-Rivas, J. D., & Cardenas, J. C. (2024). What is the economic value of coastal and marine ecosystem services? A systematic literature review. Marine Policy, 161, Article 106033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2024.106033 

 

 

  • Using InVEST’s Coastal Vulnerability Model, a study evaluated 19 scenarios across Escambia and Santa Rosa, Florida, to project how varying sea-level rise and coastal habitat (including scrub shrub, coastal forest, dunes, emergent marsh, seagrass beds, and beach) management affect residential property risk. The study found that under a High sea-level rise scenario by 2100, maintaining current management strategies would expose $127.9 million (2018$) in residential property to damage from a single tropical cyclone. However, actively protecting coastal habitats could reduce these potential damages by $71.8 million by 2100, or by $50.4 million as early as 2050. Conversely, allowing habitats to degrade under high sea levels could increase potential damages by an additional $37.4 million. – Jackson, C. A., Schmutz, P., Harwell, M. C., & Littles, C. J. (2020). The ecosystem service of property protection and exposure to environmental stressors in the Gulf of Mexico. Ocean & Coastal Management, 184, Article 105017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.105017

 

  • Estuaries in 21 regions on the Atlantic, Pacific, Gulf of Mexico, and Great Lakes Coasts (comprising 380 counties) account for 40 percent of the population, 39 percent of employment, and 47 percent of economic output. In eight states, the estuary regions comprise 80 percent or more of the state’s economy. – Rouleau, T., Colgan, C.S., Adkins, J. Castelletto, A., Dirlam, P., Lyons, S., and Stevens, H. (2021).  The Economic Value of America’s Estuaries: 2021 Update.  Washington: Restore America’s Estuaries. https://estuaries.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/2021-Final-Report.pdf
  • NOAA, in part through programs funded by the National Estuarine Research Reserve System and Office of Coastal Management, preserves wetlands. Coastal wetlands—including marshes, mangroves, swamps, deltas, and floodplains—protect our coastal communities from storm surge and floods, provide habitat for fish and other wildlife, filter our water, and sequester carbon from the atmosphere.

 

  • A global cost-benefit analysis evaluated the economic viability of restoring four “blue” ecosystems: coral reefs, mangroves, saltmarshes, and seagrasses. The analysis revealed that benefits outweighed costs for all four ecosystems, with the highest mean benefit-cost ratios (BCR) found in saltmarsh (BCR = 232) and mangroves (BCR = 87). Key drivers of these net benefits included the specific restoration technique used, the types of ecosystem services produced (e.g., reduction of damage during extreme events and fish nursery services for mangroves, and water purification services for saltmarshes), and, notably, the country’s income level; for instance, mangrove restoration in middle-income nations yielded net benefits 40 times higher than in high-income nations. These results were based on costs from published case studies and assigned benefit values—defined as the monetary value of ecosystem services—using a value transfer method. Benefits were calculated over a 60-year period and a declining discount rate (starting at 3.5% and dropping to 3% after 30 years). – Stewart-Sinclair, P. J., Klein, C. J., Bateman, I. J., & Lovelock, C. E. (2021). Spatial cost-benefit analysis of blue restoration and factors driving net benefits globally. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY, 35(6), 1850-1860. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13742

 

  • A global cost-benefit analysis quantified the economic viability of mangrove restoration, finding positive benefit-cost ratios between 10.50 and 6.83. Restoration outcomes (including carbon sequestration, wave dissipation, fish production and diversity, heavy metals accumulation, and others) varied widely by restoration age, species, and restoration method. Restored mangroves achieved outcomes comparable to naturally regenerated or degraded mangroves, however, due to limitations in biogeochemical and ecological functions (such as biomass production) related to stand age, their outcomes were lower when compared to established natural mangroves. These results were based on a meta-analysis of 188 peer-reviewed studies on the outcomes of mangrove restoration. Benefits were calculated over a 20-year period and variable discount rates of -2% to 8%. – Su, J., Friess, D. A., & Gasparatos, A. (2021). A meta-analysis of the ecological and economic outcomes of mangrove restoration. Nature Communications, 12(1), Article 5050. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-25349-1  

 

  • A high-resolution global economic analysis of mangroves for flood risk reduction found that they provide annual benefits exceeding $65 billion (2018$) and prevent more than 15 million people from being flooded each year. If these habitats were lost, annual damages to property (industrial and residential stock) would increase by 9%, and the number of people affected by flooding would rise by 28%. Notably, the United States received the greatest value in terms of avoided property damages at $11.31 billion. Results were based on an assessment of the difference in flood damages between a scenario with mangroves (the current 700,000 km global extent) and without mangroves. – Menéndez, P., Losada, I. J., Torres-Ortega, S., Narayan, S., & Beck, M. W. (2020). The Global Flood Protection Benefits of Mangroves. Scientific Reports, 10(1), Article 4404. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-61136-6 

 

  • A contingent valuation survey estimated Floridian recreational anglers’ value (willingness-to-pay or WTP) for improved fishery and overall ecosystem health from increased freshwater inflows to Everglade National Park. WTP for a percent improvement in fish catch ranged from $0.47 – $0.62 (2015$) where the upper bound accounts for anglers’ perception of climate risk. Similarly, WTP for a percent improvement in overall ecosystem health ranged from $0.85 – $1.21. When assuming freshwater flows are restored from past monthly averages to quarterly target levels, annual benefits range from $6.85 million – $9.60 million.  – Brown, C. E., Bhat, M. G., & Rehage, J. (2020). Valuing Ecosystem Services under Climate Risk: A Case of Recreational Fisheries in the Florida Everglades. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 146(12), Article 04020089. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0001290 

 

  • An evaluation of the impact of wetland restoration through USDA/NRCS’s Wetland Reserve Program found a 6%-10% housing price increase for nearby homes (within ~2-km of wetlands) in Arkansas. When applying the more conservative 6% housing price increase to nearby homes that were sold post-remediation, total housing value increased by $6,684,000 (2017$). Further, when including all homes (including houses that were close to the wetland but not sold in the market after the restoration), wetland restoration led to a $140 million increase in value in the state. Results were based on quasi-experimental difference-in-differences and event study approaches using housing sales data from 1990-2018 and wetland easement data from 1992-2017. – Richardson, M., Liu, P. F., & Eggleton, M. (2022). Valuation of Wetland Restoration: Evidence from the Housing Market in Arkansas. Environmental & Resource Economics, 81(3), 649-683. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10640-021-00643-0 

 

  • Protection from tropical cyclones provided by U.S. coastal wetlands contributes as much as $200 billion (2015$) in avoided damages and 469 lives saved annually. – Costanza, R., Anderson, S. J., Sutton, P., Mulder, K., Mulder, O., Kubiszewski, I., et al. (2021). The global value of coastal wetlands for storm protection. Global Environmental Change, 70, 102328. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102328

 

  • Coastal wetlands offer property protection by mitigating storm surge and wind impacts, with an average economic value of $1.8 million/km² (2016$) and a median value of $91,000/km² annually across U.S. coastal counties.  – Sun, F. L., & Carson, R. T. (2020). Coastal wetlands reduce property damage during tropical cyclones. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(11), 5719-5725. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1915169117 

 

  • A 1% loss of coastal wetlands is linked to a 0.6% increase in property damage from tropical cyclones; Hurricane Irma’s property damage increased by $430 million (2016$) due to wetland losses.  – Sun, F. L., & Carson, R. T. (2020). Coastal wetlands reduce property damage during tropical cyclones. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(11), 5719-5725. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1915169117 

 

  • Wetlands in New Jersey’s Jacques Cousteau Reserve can reduce up to 13.8% of flood depth and property damages, avoiding up to $13.1 million (2018$),  in 50-year storms, and reduced Hurricane Sandy’s (2012) damages by 0.36% or $8.3 million.  – Rezaie, A. M., Loerzel, J., & Ferreira, C. M. (2020). Valuing natural habitats for enhancing coastal resilience: Wetlands reduce property damage from storm surge and sea level rise. Plos One, 15(1), Article e0226275. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226275

 

  • Cyclones have long-term negative economic impacts, particularly in coastal communities directly exposed (within 100 km of the storm’s eye), where, globally, economic activity declines by 10–22% over five years compared to pre-cyclone trends. However, areas with both wide mangrove coverage and high elevation (≥50 m) are shielded from the direct cyclone impacts and face minimal economic decline, maintaining pre-cyclone economic growth rates. – Hochard, J. P., Barbier, E. B., & Hamilton, S. E. (2021). Mangroves and coastal topography create economic “safe havens” from tropical storms. Scientific Reports, 11(1), Article 15359. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94207-3

 

  • Currently, 21% of the population living in global low-elevation coastal zones impacted annually by tropical cyclones are protected by coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, salt marshes, and coral reefs. In particular, mangrove restoration efforts may increase the number of people protected in individual countries by 39%. However, the share of people protected by coastal ecosystems has declined by about 2% over the past 30 years due to ecosystem loss. Furthermore, based on simulations of tropical cyclone events until 2050 under a high-emission climate scenario, climate change is expected to increase the average annual number of people at risk by 40%, reaching nearly 95 million. – Hülsen, S., McDonald, R., Chaplin-Kramer, R., Bresch, D. N., Sharp, R., Worthington, T., & Kropf, C. M. (2023). Global protection from tropical cyclones by coastal ecosystems-past, present, and under climate change. Environmental Research Letters, 18(12), Article 124023. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ad00cd

 

  • In Charlotte Harbor, Florida, coastal protection from wetlands was found to prevent Hurricane Ian-related damages to 234 buildings, valued at $23 million (2022$). Results were based on a simulation of the effects of existing vegetation and mangroves on estuarine hydrodynamics (storm surge, surface water elevation, wave height, and coastal inundation) under Hurricane Ian’s storm conditions, both with and without vegetation. This was supplemented by applying FEMA’s Hazus flood risk methodology, which utilizes damage functions applied to compiled building inventory, flood depth, and extent data. – Kramer, M. R., & Arias, M. E. (2025). The role of coastal wetlands in mitigating hurricane flooding in a shallow subtropical estuary. Natural Hazards, 121(11), 12795-12816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-025-07293-1   

 

  • In Galveston Bay, Texas, the total loss of coastal wetlands would have increased damages from Hurricane Ike (2008) by a net $934 million (2019$) or 12.8% of baseline damages. Additionally, if Hurricane Ike had occurred in 2019, damages would have been higher by nearly $2.52 billion or 34.6%, primarily due to increased real estate value and new coastal development. Results were based on a high-resolution hydrodynamic model and land-use/land-cover change analyses – Al-Attabi, Z., Xu, Y., Tso, G., & Narayan, S. (2023). The impacts of tidal wetland loss and coastal development on storm surge damages to people and property: a Hurricane Ike case-study. Scientific Reports, 13(1), Article 4620. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31409-x  

 

  • Total organic carbon (TOC) storage in Everglades National Park mangroves was found to range from 70 to 537 Mg C/ha (significantly higher than that of many tropical, boreal, and temperate terrestrial forests) and valued at $2-3.4 billion (2015$). The value of TOC depends on ecogeomorphic attributes, regional socio-economic milieu, and the status of Everglades National Park mangroves as a protected area. – Jerath, M., Bhat, M., Rivera-Monroy, V. H., Castañeda-Moya, E., Simard, M., & Twilley, R. R. (2016). The role of economic, policy, and ecological factors in estimating the value of carbon stocks in Everglades mangrove forests, South Florida, USA. Environmental Science & Policy, 66, 160-169. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.09.005 
  • Oyster reefs provide significant economic value to regional coastal communities. Farmed oysters, clams, and mussels account for about two-thirds of total U.S. marine aquaculture production. A single oyster filters up to 50 gallons of water per day and improves water that is overloaded with nutrients. Healthy reefs also reduce wave energy, shoreline erosion, and storm damage. 
  • In a meta-analysis which synthesized data from 106 publications, the performance of restored eastern oyster reefs was evaluated across 3,500 km of U.S. coastlines. By comparing 245 restored-degraded reef pairs and 136 restored-reference reef pairs, restoration was found to result in a 21-fold increase in oyster production and 34–97% enhancement of habitat provisioning (measured by community abundance, richness, and biomass) relative to degraded habitats. Additionally, restored reefs showed a 54% increase in nitrogen removal and a 89-95% increase in sediment nutrient and organic matter concentrations compared to degraded sites. Notably, restored reefs were found to effectively match the performance of natural reference reefs for these key ecosystem services, supporting the expanded use of restoration to reclaim lost ecological functions. – Smith, R. S., Cheng, S. L., & Castorani, M. C. N. (2023). Meta-analysis of ecosystem services associated with oyster restoration. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY, 37(1), Article e13966. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13966 
  • Nitrogen removal from oysters (aquaculture and reefs) in the Great Bay Piscataqua River Estuary in New Hampshire was valued at $105,000 (2013$) (0.86 metric tons N removed/year) for current oyster aquaculture areas, $405,000 (3.30 metric tons N removed/year) for expanded areas, and $322,000 (2.63 metric tons N removed/year) for restored reefs, annually. Results were based on simulations of nitrogen removal at various levels of oyster production/mortality and the avoided cost of removing nitrogen through wastewater treatment. – Bricker, S. B., et al. (2020). Bioextractive Removal of Nitrogen by Oysters in Great Bay Piscataqua River Estuary, New Hampshire, USA. ESTUARIES AND COASTS, 43(1), 23-38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-019-00661-8 
  • Oyster reefs in Mobile Bay, Alabama were estimated to enhance approximately 674.55 tons per year and 1,105.61 tons per year of additional fish to commercial and recreational fishing sectors, respectively. This resulted in approximately $509,000 (+/-) $752,000 per year (2014$) in direct economic value for commercial fishers and $19.59 (+/-) $7.8 million per year by willingness to pay value from recreational anglers. The economic value of the commercial fish was calculated by multiplying the commercial production enhancement by landing price for each species and by benefit ratio (profit/total revenue). The economic value of recreational fish was calculated using benefit transfer of an angler’s willingness-to-pay for harvestable fish and crustacean production enhancement. Results were based on commercial and recreational fishery landing data (2005–2015) from the National Marine Fisheries Service. – Lai, Q. T., Irwin, E. R., & Zhang, Y. Q. (2020). Quantifying harvestable fish and crustacean production and associated economic values provided by oyster reefs. Ocean & Coastal Management, 187, Article 105104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2020.105104 
  • In the United States, the oyster reef restoration industry’s overall size, measured as annual spend, was estimated to be $70 million – $90 million, directly supporting 1,500 jobs and contributing $210 million of economic output. Most of the market is directed toward projects whose intended direct result is increased oyster populations rather than planning, surveys, or monitoring. The vast majority (85%) of the market resides in the mid-Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico regions. Results were based on oyster reef restoration projects between 2017-2021 taken from interviews and cross-referenced with regional and national datasets. – Hall, E., & DeAngelis, B. M. (2024). The business of oyster restoration: using traditional market-based approaches to estimate the oyster restoration economy. RESTORATION ECOLOGY, 32(5). https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.14143 
  • Using a contingent valuation survey of households across five U.S. Gulf Coast states (Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas), one study estimated the value (willingness-to-pay or WTP) of proposed oyster reef restoration efforts that would lead to an increase in annual commercial landings. The estimated median WTP ranged from $32 per household (2023$) in Louisiana to $83 per household in Mississippi, and was found to decrease with a larger status-quo number of oyster landings (3.9 million pounds in Louisiana and 25,000 in Mississippi). Aggregated across nearly 20,000 households in the region, the total public value for oyster reef restoration was estimated at $835 million, nearly triple the $369 million currently spent on restoration efforts. This research was funded by NOAA’s RESTORE Science Program. – Petrolia, D. R., Enyetornye, F., Chen, Z. S., & Yun, S. (2025). The Value of Oyster Reef Restoration. Marine Resource Economics, 40(1), 45-64. https://doi.org/10.1086/732849
  • A simulation of costs and benefits associated with several oyster production systems in the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf Coasts found the following:
    • Off-bottom aquaculture: mean net benefits of $416,823 (2019$) per acre with positive net benefits 85% of the time,
    • Bottom reefs: mean net benefits of $127,820 per acre and positive net benefits 98% of the time. 
    • Living shoreline: mean net benefits of –$182,876 (but positive median net benefits of $256,595) and positive net benefits 66% of the time. 
    • Non-harvested (protected) restored reef: mean net benefits of –$541,908 (median net benefits of  –$82,857), and positive net benefits 36% of the time. Note that results were driven by a small number of expensive restored reef projects, limited benefits (i.e., exclusion of market benefits and shoreline protection), and the exclusion of some benefits such as restored reefs acting as a source of larvae for nearby harvested reefs.

Results were based on a Monte Carlo simulation of present value costs, and market and non-market benefits (shoreline protection, nutrient removal, habitat for blue crab and red drum) over a 20-year period. Market prices for commercial oyster landings were based on NOAA Fisheries data. Living shoreline and restored reef costs were based on data from 89 completed and planned oyster-based living shoreline and 129 restored reef projects between 1998 and 2020. Most project information was taken from the NOAA Restoration Atlas. – Petrolia, D. R., Walton, W. C., & Cebrian, J. (2022). Oyster Economics: Simulated Costs, Market Returns, and Nonmarket Ecosystem Benefits of Harvested and Non-harvested Reefs, Off-Bottom Aquaculture, and Living Shorelines. Marine Resource Economics. https://doi.org/10.1086/719969.  

  • The restoration work for the Lone Cabbage Reef in Florida in 2018 was estimated to generate $5.08 million in total industry output, support 44 jobs, and contribute $3.02 million in value added to the local economy. – Botta, R., Borsum, J. S., Camp, E. V., Court, C. D., & Frederick, P. (2022). Short-term economic impacts of ecological restoration in estuarine and coastal environments: a case study of Lone Cabbage Reef. RESTORATION ECOLOGY, 30(1), Article e13462. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13462